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blog名称:David
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建立时间:2005年6月26日 |
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(2)ICT and Teacher Education---UNESCO,report-chap1,2004
文章收藏, 网上资源, 读书笔记, 外语
David 发表于 2005/6/29 12:39:05 |
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Theories Supporting the New View of the Learning Process
The new views of the learning process and the shift to student-centered learning have emerged based on research on cognitive learning and the confluence of a number of theories that have helped inform our understanding of the nature and context of learning. Some of the most prominent theories include: sociocultural theory (based on Vygotsky's intersubjectiveness and Zone of Proximal Development), constructivist theory, self-regulated learning, situated cognition, cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based learning (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt), cognitive flexibility theory (Spiro et al, 1988), and distributed cognition (Salomon et al, 1993). Each of these theories is based on the same underlying assumptions that learners are active agents that are purposefully seeking and constructing knowledge within a meaningful context. The learning environment that may be derived from this view of the learning process is shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Student-centered learning environment
The student-centered environment illustrated in this figure shows that the learner in this environment interacts with other students, the teacher, information resources and technology while engaged in authentic tasks in authentic contexts using authentic tools and being assessed through authentic performance. The environment provides the learner with coaching and scaffolding in developing knowledge and skills. It provides a rich collaborative environment enabling the learner to consider diverse and multiple perspectives in addressing issues and solving problems. It also provides opportunities for the student to reflect on his or her learning.
Although the new learning environment can be created without the use of technology, it is clear that ICT can provide powerful tools to help learners access vast knowledge resources, collaborate with others, consult with experts, share knowledge, and solve complex problems using cognitive tools. They also provide learners with powerful new tools to represent their knowledge using text, images, graphics, and video.
The new view of the learning process is based on research that has emerged from theoretical frameworks related to human learning. Many reflect a constructivist view of the learning process. In this view, learners are seen as active agents who engage in their own knowledge construction by integrating new information into their schema or mental structures. The learning process is seen as a process of “meaning-making” in socially, culturally, historically, and politically situated contexts. In a constructivist learning environment, students construct their own knowledge by testing ideas and approaches based on their prior knowledge and experience, applying these to new tasks, contexts and situations and integrating the new knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs.
A constructivist environment involves developing learning communities comprised of students, teachers and experts who are engaged in authentic tasks in authentic contexts that are closely related to the work done in the real world. A constructivist learning environment also provides opportunities for learners to experience multiple perspectives. Through dialogue, discussion or debate, learners are able to see issues and problems from different points of view and to negotiate meaning and develop shared understandings with others. The constructivist learning environment also emphasizes authentic assessment of learning rather than using the traditional paper/pencil test. Some of the most influential theories that relate to new views of the process include:
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of human learning emphasizes learning as a social process and that human intelligence originates in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual's mental structure.
Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p57).
A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). This “zone” is the area of exploration for which the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more experienced peer is able to provide the learner with “scaffolding” to support the student’s evolving understanding of knowledge domains, or in the development of complex skills. Collaborative learning, discourse, modeling, and scaffolding are strategies for supporting the intellectual knowledge and skills of learners and to facilitate intentional learning. The implications of Vygotsky theory are that learners should be provided with socially rich environments in which to explore knowledge domains with their fellow students, teachers and outside experts. ICT can be used to support the learning environment by providing tools for discourse and discussions, collaborative writing and problem-solving, and by providing online support systems to help scaffold students to support their evolving understanding and cognitive growth.
Jean Piaget
Based on his research on the development of cognitive functions of children, Piaget’s work is regarded by many as the founding principles of constructivist theory. He observed that learning occurs through adaptation to interactions with the environment. Disequilibrium (mental conflict which demands resolution) gives rise to Assimilation of a new experience which are added to the existing knowledge of the learner, or to Accommodation, which is modification of existing understanding to provide for the new experience.
Specifically, Piaget posited that the existing cognitive structures of the learner determine how new information is perceived and processed. If the new information makes sense to the existing mental structure of the learner, then the new information item is incorporated into the structure (i.e., Assimilation). If, however, the data are very different from the existing mental structure of the learner, it is either rejected or transformed in ways so that it will fit into the structure (i.e., Accommodation). Both of these ideas underscore that the learner has an active role in constructing his or her own knowledge. He observed that, as children assimilated new information into their existing mental structures, their ideas gained in complexity and power and their understanding of the world grew in richness and depth. These ideas are core concepts of the constructivist view of the learning process (Jean Piaget Society, 2001).
Jerome Bruner
Similar to Piaget, Bruner emphasized that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their prior knowledge and experience. He identifies three principles to guide the development of instruction. These include: (1) instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness); (2) instruction must be structured so that the student can easily grasp it (spiral organization); and, (3) instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
Problem-Based Learning.
The goals of problem-based learning (PBL) are to develop higher order thinking skills by providing students with authentic and complex problems and cases. This approach to learning provides a more authentic context for learning and engages students in authentic tasks. It is used frequently in fields such as engineering, medicine and architecture but has been increasingly applied to K – 12 settings. Through the process of working together, articulating their own theories, creating hypotheses, and critically discussing the ideas of others, students move to deeper levels of understanding of the problem. The self-directed learning strategies developed in PBL may be helpful to students in fostering lifelong learning.
Anchored Instruction
Anchored instruction is an approach to designing instruction that is ‘anchored’ in a real world context, problem or situation. Technology has been used to help create ‘real world’ contexts and situations through the use of video. The video segments provide the context for the subsequent learning and instruction (Bransford & Stein, 1993).
Distributed Cognition
Distributed cognition emphasizes that cognitive growth is fostered through interaction with others and involves dialogue and discourse, making private knowledge public and developing shared understandings. Tools for online collaboration have been designed to support collaborative knowledge construction and sharing in the classroom (Oshima, Bereiter, and Scardamalia, 1995).
Cognitive Flexibility Theory
This theory asserts that people acquire knowledge in ill-structured domains by constructing multiple representations and linkages among knowledge units. It also notes that learners revisit the same concepts and principles in a variety of contexts. The theory is useful in understanding how knowledge is transferred in ill-structured knowledge domains Spiro, et al., (1988)
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive apprenticeship is a term for the instructional process in which teachers or more experienced or knowledgeable peers provide ‘scaffolds’ to support the learner’s cognitive growth and development. Cognitive apprenticeship permits students to learn through their interactions, to construct knowledge, and to share the knowledge building experiences with the other members of the learning community. ICT provides powerful new tools to support cognitive apprenticeships enabling groups to share online workspaces in collaboratively developing artifacts and intellectual products. It also enables the possibility of tele-apprenticeships where an expert is able to work with and mentor a student who may be thousands of miles distant.
Situated Learning
Situated learning emphasizes the use of apprenticeship, coaching, collaboration, authentic contexts, tasks, activities and cognitive tools (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). It occurs when students work on authentic tasks that take place in real-world settings (Winn, 1993). Learning is viewed as a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs, which contrasts with most classroom learning which is abstract and out of context (Lave, 1991). Situated cognition theory emphasizes providing an authentic context for the learner and encouraging social interaction and collaboration in the learning environment. Through collaborative problem solving, dialogue and discussion students are able to develop deeper levels of understanding of a problem or knowledge domain.
Self-regulated Learning
Self-regulated learners are those who are aware of their own knowledge and understandings, i.e., what they know and what they don’t know or need to understand. It combines self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. Self-regulation plays a crucial role in all phases of learning and has the potential to increase the meaningfulness of students’ classroom learning (Schoenfeld, 1987). ICT tools can be used to help students make their tacit knowledge public and to help them to develop their metacognitive skills in becoming more reflective and self-regulated learners.
These theories that under gird the new views of the learning process are helping to shape the new pedagogies for learning. Ultimately, the power of ICT will be determined by the knowledge and skills of teachers to use the new tools for learning to create new, rich and engaging learning environments for their students. The UNESCO World Report (1998) notes that:
There are indications that the new technologies could have radical implications for conventional teaching and learning processes. It notes that, in reconfiguring how teachers and learners gain access to knowledge and information, the new technologies challenge conventional conceptions of both teaching and learning materials, and teaching and learning methods and approaches.
The challenge for ICT in Teacher Education is how to assure that the new generation of teachers, as well as existing teachers, is well prepared to use the new tools and pedagogies for learning.
References
Bransford, J.D. & Stein, B.S. (1993). The Ideal Problem Solver. Freeman, New York.
Briner, M. (1999). Constructivism: The theories. [Online] Available: http://curriculum.calstatela.edu/faculty/psparks/theorists/501const.htm [2001, November 10]
Bronowski, J. 1990. Science and Human Values. Harper Collins, New York.
Bruer, J. 1993 Schools for Thought. MIT Press, Cambridge.
Cole and Wertsch (1996). Beyond the Individual-Social Antimony in Discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. [Online]. Available: http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/colevyg.htm [2002, February, 21]
Driscoll, M.P. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction. Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Jean Piaget Society (2001). [Online] Available: http://www.piaget.org/ [2001, October, 18]
Newby, T., Stepich, D., Lehman, J., and Russel, J. (2000). Instructional technology for teaching and learning. Upper Saddle River, Merrill/Prentice Hall, New Jersey:
NSBA. 2002 Why Change? [Online]. Available: http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/WhyChange.html [2002. February 12]
Postman, N. 1969 Teaching as a Subversive Activity. Doubleday, New York.
Pribram, K. 1991 Brain and Perception: Holonomy and Structure in Figural Processing.
Lawrenece Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey.
Resta, P. 1996. Technology and changing views of the learning process. Texas School Boards Association Journal. 11 (8)
Sandholtz, j., Ringstaff, C. and Dwyer, D. (1997). Teaching with Technology.
Teachers College Press, New York.
Tapscott, Don. (1998). Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw Hill, New York.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA. |
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